Effect of Planting Date and Moisture Levels on Some Physiological and Biochemical Traits of Quinoa Cultivars (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) in Birjand and Sarbisheh Regions

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

1 Department of Plant Production and Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran

2 Plant and Environmental Stresses Research Group, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran

3 Department of Water Engineering, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran

Abstract

Introduction
The economic importance of quinoa is not only due to the possibility of using the seeds as a food product characterized by a similar composition and use as consumer cereals but the species can also be managed as a leafy vegetable with high nutritional value and similar uses, such as, for example, spinach. Drought is another environmental stressor for plants subjected to severe water stress, especially in semi-arid and arid environments. Water scarcity poses a considerable challenge to crop production, leading to a notable reduction in crop yield. Quinoa, however, boasts low water requirements and demonstrates resilience in drought conditions. Even during dry periods, quinoa can effectively sustain leaf area and regulate photosynthetic activity. This resilience is facilitated by structural characteristics such as small, thin-walled cells, tissue flexibility, low osmotic potential, and controlled leaf area reduction through dehiscence. Other quinoa features for sustaining turgor pressure through osmotic adjustment during drought stress include inorganic ion buildup (e.g., Ca, K, and Na) and improved organic element synthesis (carotenoids and proline). Quinoa genotypes have several drought-resistance mechanisms, enabling this crop to grow and develop under severe drought conditions. 
Materials and Methods
To evaluate the effect of moisture levels on some quinoa cultivars biochemical traits, four separate experiments were conducted in a factorial layout based on randomized complete block design with three replications in two regions (Birjand and Sarbisheh) and two planting dates (March and July/August) in 2018-2019. The experimental factors included five moisture levels (25, 50, 75, 100, and 125% of crop water requirement) and three quinoa cultivars (Titicaca, Giza1, and Redcarina). Some quinoa physiological and biochemical traits were evaluated by composite analysis at the 50% flowering stage and the effects of planting date and location were considered fixed.
Results and Discussion
The results showed that in August/July cultivation, the characteristics of RWC, electrolyte leakage, sodium percentage, potassium percentage, chlorophyll a, carotenoids, proline content, and total soluble carbohydrate of leaves were increased by 17.10, 74.62, 95.51, 31.9, 3.53, 38.65, 94.19 and 9.30% respectively and chlorophyll b content decreased by 13.15% compared to March culture. Also, in Sarbisheh, RWC, electrolyte leakage, potassium percentage, and leaf carotenoids are respectively 3.53, 38.65, 94.19 and 9.30% more than Birjand, but sodium percentage, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, proline and total soluble carbohydrates of leaves were 4, 1.88, 15.67, 51.02 and 30.41% less than Birjand, respectively. In most of the studied traits, the Giza1 cultivar had higher quality traits. Severe water scarcity resulted in an elevation of certain biochemical traits in quinoa leaves. Specifically, as moisture levels decreased from 125% to 25% of the water requirement, there was a significant increase in electrolyte leakage, sodium and potassium percentages, chlorophyll a and b, carotenoids, proline, and total leaf soluble carbohydrates by 24.50%, 37.84%, 35.89%, 24.83%, 59.12%, 48.75%, 51.58%, and 36.71%, respectively. However, the relative water content (RWC) decreased by 17.70%. Notably, there were no significant differences observed between the 125% and 100% levels of water requirement for most of the analyzed traits.
Conclusion
In general, with the significance of the triple interaction of planting date × location × cultivar, as a result, the reaction of each variety depends on the planting date and location of its planting. But in general, most of the quinoa leaf physiological and biochemical traits increased in August/July cultivation. In Birjand, due to the higher average temperature and other climatic parameters compared to Sarbisheh, and probably understanding the heat stress, traits such as photosynthetic pigments, proline, and soluble carbohydrates had higher values. In this research, the Giza1 was superior to the other two cultivars, and moisture stress caused a significant decrease in the water content of the leaves and a significant increase in quinoa leaves quality traits.

Keywords

Main Subjects

©2024 The author(s). This is an open-access article distributed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source

References

  1. Abbas, G., Areej, F., Asad, S. A., Saqib, M., Anwar-ul-Haq, M., Afzal, S., Murtaza, B., Amjad, M., Naeem, M. A., Akram, M., & Akhtar, N. (2023). Differential Effect of Heat Stress on Drought and Salt Tolerance Potential of Quinoa Genotypes: A Physiological and Biochemical Investigation. Plants, 12(4), 774. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12040774
  2. Abrar, M. M., Sohail, M., Saqib, M., Akhtar, J., Abbas, G., Wahab, H. A., Mumtaz, M. Z., Mehmood, K., Memon, M. S., Sun, N., & Xu, M. (2022). Interactive salinity and water stress severely reduced the growth, stress tolerance, and physiological responses of guava (Psidium guajava). Scientific Reports, 12, 18952. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-22602-5
  3. Adamczewska-Sowińska, K., Sowiński, J., & Jama-Rodzeńska, A. (2021). The effect of sowing date and harvest time on leafy greens of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) yield and selected nutritional parameters. Agriculture, 11(5), 405. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050405
  4. Al-Naggar, A. M. M., Abd El-Salam, R. M., Badran, A. E. E., & El-Moghazi, M. M. (2017). Drought tolerance of five quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) genotypes and its association with other traits under moderate and severe drought stress. Asian Journal of Advances in Agricultural Research, 3, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.9734/AJAAR/2017/37216
  5. Amini, M., Noruzi, H. A., Faraji, A., & Nasiri, B. M. (2019). Evaluation of morphological, physiological, and photosynthetic responses of sunflower cultivars (Helianthus annuus) under different irrigation regimes. Journal of Plant Environmental Physiology, 14(54), 32-49. (in Persian with English abstract). https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.76712423.1398.14.54.4.4
  6. Arnon, A. N. (1967). Method of extraction of chlorophyll in the plants. Agronomy Journal, 23, 112-121.
  7. AsgarNezhad, M. R., Zareei, G. R., & Zarezadeh, A. (2015). Effects of planting date and plant density on yield and yield components of Brassica nigra under Abarkooh climatic conditions. Crop production, 8(3), 183-198. (in Persian with English abstract). https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.2008739.1394.8.3.10.4
  8. Ashraf, M., & Foolad, M. R. (2007). Roles of glycine betaine and proline in improving plant abiotic stress resistance. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 59, 206-216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envexpbot.2005.12.006
  9. Asif, A., Khan, S., Asif, B., Ibrar, D., Hasnain, Z., Ismail, M. S., Rizwan, M., Ullah, S., Bashir, S., Rais, A., & Irshad, S. (2022). Preliminary study on growth and yield potential of ten elite lines of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) cultivated under varying sowing dates. Plants, 11(16), 2116. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11162116
  10. Bagheri, M. (2018). Handbook of quinoa cultivation. Seed and Plant Improvement Institute 48 P. (in Persian).
  11. Barandeh, F., & Kavousi, H. R. (2017). Effect of Cadmium on changes of some enzymatic and none-enzymatic antioxidant defense systems in lentil seedlings (Lens culinaris). Iranian Journal of Pulses Research, 7(2), 125-137. (in Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22067/ijpr.v7i2.45542
  12. Bates, L. S., Waldren, R. P., & Teare, I. D. (1973). Rapid determination of free proline for water-stress studies. Plant Soil, 39, 205-207.
  13. Bazile, D., & Baudron, F. (2015). The dynamics of the global expansion of quinoa growing in view of its high biodiversity. In FAO & CIRAD. State of the Art Report of Quinoa in the World in 2013; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2015; Chapter 1.4, pp. 42-55.
  14. Bazile, D., Pulvento, C., Verniau, A., Al-Nusairi, M. S., Ba, D., Breidy, J., Hassan, L., Mohammed, M. I., Mambetov, O., Otambekova, M., Sepahvand, N. A., Shams, A., Souici, D., Miri, K., & Padulosi, S. (2016). Worldwide Evaluations of Quinoa: Preliminary results from post international year of quinoa FAO projects in nine countries. Frontiers in Plant Science, 7, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.00850
  15. Bhargava, A., Shukla, S., & Ohri, D. (2007). Genetic variability and interrelationship among various morphological and quality traits in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Field Crops Research, 101(1), 104-116. https://doi.org/1016/j.fcr.2006.10.001
  16. da Silva, P. C., Ribeiro Junior, W. Q., Ramos, M. L. G., Celestino, S. M. C., Silva, A. D. N., Casari, R. A. D. C. N., Santana, C. C., de Lima, C. A., Williams, T. C. R., & Vinson, C. C. (2021). Quinoa for the Brazilian Cerrado: Agronomic characteristics of elite genotypes under different water regimes. Plants, 10(8), 1591. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10081591
  17. Dashti, M., Kafi, M., Tavakoli, H., Mirza, M., & Nezami, A. (2016). Effects of freezing stress on Morpho-physiological indices and chlorophyll fluorescence of Salvia leriifolia Seedlings. Journal of Plant Researches, 28(5), 962-973. (in Persian with English abstract).
  18. Dua-e-Zainab, A. H. G., Zafar, A., Sohail, S., Zafar, H., Ijaz, A. B., Farooq, Q., Haider, S., Aslam, M. Z., Rehman, B., Shah, M. S., Yousaf, H., Aslam, M. N., & Husnain, M. M. U. (2021). A brief study of quinoa role and its adaptation towards salinity and drought stress, Current Research in Agriculture and Farming, 2(3), 27-40. https://doi.org/10.18782/2582-7146.143
  19. Ebrahimiyan, M., Majidi, M. M., Mirlohi, A., & Noroozi, A. (2013). Physiological traits related to drought tolerance in tall fescue. Euphytica, 190, 401-414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10681-012-0808-8
  20. Elewa, T. A., Sadak, M. S., & Saad, A. M. (2017). Proline treatment improves physiological responses in quinoa plants under drought stress. Bioscience Research, 14(1), 21-33.
  21. El-Shamy, M. A., Alshaal, T., Mohamed, H. H., Rady, A. M. S., Hafez, E. M., Alsohim, A. S., & Abd El-oneim, D. (2022). Quinoa response to application of phosphonyls and Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria under Water Stress Associated with Salt-Affected Soil. Plants, 11, 872. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11070872
  22. Esfandiari sabzevar, T., Tatari, M., & Farokhi, H. (2018). Antioxidative properties comparison of Chenopodium quinoa leaves and seeds ‎extract: in vitro study. Journal of Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, 25(3), 353-361. (in Persian).
  23. FAOSTAT. (2019). Available online: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC (accessed on 3 February 2021).
  24. Farooq, M., Wahid, A., Kobayashi, N., Fujita, D., & Barsa, S. M. A. (2009). Plant drought stress: effects, mechanisms and management. Journal of Agronomy and Sustainable Development, 29, 185-212. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro:2008021
  25. Fazeli, F., Akbari, G. A., Akbari, G. A. Naderi Arefi, A., & Benakashani, F. (2021). Response of different quinoa (Chenopodiumquinoa) genotypes to planting date in terms of morphological traits, yield and yield components in Garmsar region. Iranian Journal of Field Crop Science, 52(2), 41-49. (in Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22059/IJFCS.2020.303866.654725
  26. Gámez, A. L., Soba, D., Zamarreño, Á. M., García-Mina, J. M., Aranjuelo, I., & Morales, F. (2019). Effect of water stress during grain filling on yield, quality and physiological traits of Illpa and Rainbow quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) cultivars. Plants, 8(6), 173, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8060173
  27. Garcia, M. (2003). Agroclimatic Study and Drought Resistance Analysis of Quinoa for An Irrigation Strategy in the Bolivian Altiplano; Dissertationes de Agricultura 556; KU Leuven: Leuven, Belgium.
  28. Gholami, S., Dehaghi, M. A., Rezazadeh, A., & Naji, A. M. (2022). Seed germination and physiological responses of quinoa to selenium priming under drought stress. Bragantia, 81, E0722. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4499.20210183
  29. Gholamnia, A., Mosleh Arany, A., Sodaeizadeh, H., Tarkesh Esfahani, S., & Ghasemi, S. (2021). The effects of salinity and heat stress on some physiological and vegetative characteristics of peppermint (Mentha piperita) at different time intervals. Iranian Journal of Plant Biology, 13(2), 39-52. (in Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22108/ijpb.2021.127818.1243
  30. Gonzalez, J. A., Gallardo, M., Hilal, M., Rosa, M., & Prado, F. (2009). Physiological responses of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) to drought and waterlogging stresses: dry matter partitioning. Botanical Studies, 50, 35-42.
  31. Granado-Rodríguez, S., Aparicio, N., Matías, J., Pérez-Romero, L. F., Maestro, I., Gracés, I., Pedroche, J. J., Haros, C. M., Fernandez-Garcia, N., Navarro del Hierro, J., & Martin, D. (2021). Studying the impact of different field environmental conditions on seed quality of quinoa: The case of three different years changing seed nutritional traits in Southern Europe. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 649132. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2021.649132
  32. Guinchard, M. P., Robin, C., Grieu, P., & Guckert, A. (1997). Cold acclimation in white clover subjected to chilling and frost: changes in water and carbohydrates status. European Journal of Agronomy, 6, 225-233. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1161-0301(96)02046-1
  33. Hasanfard, A. R., Nezami, A., Kafi, M., & Nabati, J. (2018). Evaluation of freezing tolerance in faba bean (Vicia faba) using electrolytes leakage index. Iranian Journal of Field Crop Science, 49(1), 77-88. (in Persian with English abstract). http://doi.org/10.22059/IJFCS.2017.233454.654322
  34. Hasegawa, P. M., Bressan, R. A., Zhu, J. K., & Bohnert, H. J. (2000). Plant cellular and molecular responses to high salinity. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, 51, 463-499. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.51.1.463
  35. Hosseini, S. M., Hasanloo, T., & Mohammadi, S. (2014). Physiological characteristics, antioxidant enzyme activities, and gene expression in 2 spring canola (Brassica napus ) cultivars under drought stress conditions. Turkish Journal Agricultural Forestry, 38, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.3906/tar-1405-102
  36. Heydari SharifAbad, H. (2000). Plant, drought and drouth. Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands. First Edition. 171 PP. (in Persian).
  37. Iqbal, H., Yaning, C., Waqas, M., Shareef, M., & Raza, S. T. (2018). Differential response of quinoa genotypes to drought and foliage-applied H2O2 in relation to oxidative damage, osmotic adjustment and antioxidant capacity. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 164, 344-354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.08.004
  38. Irigoyen, J. J., Einerich, D. W., & Sanchez-Diaz, M. (1992). Water stress induced changes in concentrations of proline and total soluble sugars in nodulated alfalfa (Medicago sativa) plants. Physiologycal Plant, 84, 55-60. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3054.1992.tb08764.x
  39. Jabbari Orange, M., & Ebadi, A. (2011). Effect of supplemental irrigation on nutrient uptake, water relations and drought tolerance of safflower cultivars in Ardabil conditions. Environmental Stresses in Crop Science, 3(2), 115-127. (in Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22077/escs.2011.88
  40. Jacobsen, S. E. (2003). The Worldwide Potential for Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). Food Reviews International, 19, 167-177. https://doi.org/10.1081/FRI-120018883
  41. Jacobsen, S. E. (2017). The scope for adaptation of quinoa in Northern Latitudes of Europe. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 203, 603-613. https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12228
  42. Jacobsen, S. E., Liu, F., & Jensen, C. R. (2009). Does root-sourced ABA play a role for regulation of stomata under drought in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). Scientia Horticulturae, 122, 281-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2009.05.019
  43. Jacobsen, S. E., Quispe, H., & Mujica, A. (2001). Quinoa: an alternative crop for saline soils in the Andes. Scientist and Farmer-Partners in Research for the 21st Century. CIP Program Report, 2000, 403-408.
  44. Jagesh, K., Tiwari, A. D., Munshi, R. K., Raghu, N., Pandey Ajay, A. J. S., & Bhat, A. K. S. (2010). Effect of salt stress on cucumber: Na+/ K+ ratio, osmolyte concentration, phenols and chlorophyll content. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, 32(1),103-114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11738-009-0385-1
  45. Jamali, S., Shaifan, H., & Sajadi, F. (2019). The effect of different seawater and deficit irrigation regimes on leaf properties of quinoa. Water and Irrigation Management, 8(2), 177-191. (in Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22059/jwim.2018.249473.585
  46. Jensen, C., Jacobsen, S. E., Andersen, M., Nunez, N., Andersen, S., Rasmussen, L., & Mogensen, V. (2000). Leaf gas exchange and water relation characteristics of field quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) during soil drying. European Journal Agronomy, 13, 11-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1161-0301(00)00055-1
  47. Karmollachaab, A., & Gharineh, M. H. (2013). Effect of Zinc Element on Growth, Yield Components and some Physiological Characteristics of Maize under NaCl Salinity Stress. Iranian Journal of Field Crops Research, 11(3), 446-453. (in Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22067/gsc.v11i3.29744
  48. Khorshidi Benam, M. B., Rahimzadeh Khoii, F., Mirhadi, M. J., & Nour-Mohamadi, G. (2002). Study of drought stress effects in different growth stages on potato cultivars. Iranian Journal of Crop Sciences, 4(1), 48-59. (in Persian with English abstract).
  49. Kim, T. E., Kim, S. K., Han, T. J., Lee, J. S. & Chang, S. C. (2002). ABA and polyamines act independently in primary leaves of cold‐stressed tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). Physiologic Plantarum, 115, 370-376. https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1399-3054.2002.1150306.x
  50. Lin, P. H., & Chao, Y. Y. (2021). Different Drought-Tolerant Mechanisms in Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) and Djulis (Chenopodium formosanum) Based on Physiological Analysis. Plants, 10(11), 2279. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10112279
  51. Lone, M. I., Kueh, J. S. H., Wyn Jones, R. G., & Bright, S. W. J. (1987). Influence of proline and glycine betaine on salt tolerance of cultured barley embryos. Journal of Experimental Botany, 38, 479-490. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/38.3.479
  52. Mahmood, R. S., & AL-Taweel, S. K. (2022), July. Physiological Response of Genotypes and Sowing Dates in the Growth and Yield of Chenopodium Quinoa In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science(Vol. 1060, No. 1, p. 012111). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1060/1/012111
  53. Maleky, A., Saba, J., & Shekary, F. (2009). Inheritance of Leaf Relative Water Content in Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum) under Rainfed Conditions. Journal of Agricultural Knowledge, 19(2), 177-183. (in Persian).
  54. Manaa, A., Goussi, R., Derbali, W., Cantamessa, S., Essemine, J., & Barbato, R. (2021). Photosynthetic performance of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) after exposure to a gradual drought stress followed by a recovery period. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)- Bioenergetics, 1862(5), 148383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbabio.2021.148383
  55. Mirmiran, M., Nezami, A., & Kafi, M. (2017). The effect of freezing stress on electrolyte leakage in Trigonella foenum-graecum ecotypes. Environmental Stresses in Crop Science, 11(1), 185-198. (in Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22077/escs.2017.76.1019
  56. Modhan, M. M., Narayanan, S. L., & Ibrahim, S. M. (2000). Chlorophyll stability indexes (CSI): its impacts on salt tolerance in rice. International Rice Research Institute, 25(2), 38-40.
  57. Moradi, L., Rohi, E., Hosseinpanahi, F., & Siosemardeh, A. (2022). Evaluation of some physiological traits and yield of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) under different irrigation regimes. Environmental Stresses in Crop Sciences, 15(4), 847-863. (in Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22077/escs.2021.4092.1964
  58. Morales, A., Zurita-Silva, A., Maldonado, J., & Silva, H. (2017). Transcriptional responses of chilean quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) under Water Deficit Conditions Uncovers ABA-Independent Expression Patterns. Frontiers in Plant Science, 8, 216. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00216
  59. Mortazaeinezhad, F., & JaziZadeh, E. (2017). Effects of Water stress on Morphological and Physiological Indices of Cichorium intybus for introduction in urban landscapes. Plant Process and Function, 6(21), 279-290. (in Persian). http://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.23222727.1396.6.21.27.9
  60. Nadali, F., Asghari, H. R., Abbasdokht, H., Dorostkar, V., & Bagheri, M. (2022). Physiological Responses of Quinoa Varieties (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) to Hydropriming and Drought Stress. Journal of Crop Production and Processing, 12(2), 49-62. (in Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.47176/jcpp.12.2.36912
  61. Naz, H., Akram, N. A., & Kong, H. (2020). Assessment of secondary metabolism involvement in water stress tolerance of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa ) subjected to varying water regimes. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 52(5), 1553-1559. https://doi.org/10.30848/PJB2020-5(8)
  62. Nezami, A., Borzooei, A., Jahani, M., Azizi, M., & Sharif, A. (2007). Electrolyte leakage as an indicator of freezing injury in colza (Brassica napus). Iranian Journal of Field Crop Research, 5(1), 167-175. (in Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22067/gsc.v5i1.907
  63. Nonami, H., & Boyer, J. S. (1990). Primary events regulating stem growth at low water potentials. Plant Physiology, 94, 1601-1609. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.93.4.1601
  64. Nourihosseini, S. M., & Zabiha, H. R. (2015). Optimed management of fertilizer recommendation in black cumin (Bunium persicum) cultivated lands. Land Management Journal, 3(1), 49-60. (in Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22092/lmj.2015.103703
  65. Owen, C. P. (1992). Plant analysis reference producers for the southern region of the United States. The University of Georgia, PP: 33-45.
  66. Pathan, S., Eivazi, F., Valliyodan, B., Paul, K., Ndunguru, G., & Clark, K. (2019). Nutritional composition of the green leaves of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). Journal of Food Research, 8(6), 55-65. https://doi.org/10.5539/jfr.v8n6p55
  67. Präger, A., Munz, S., Nkebiwe, P. M., Mast, B., & Graeff-Hönninger, S. (2018). Yield and quality characteristics of different quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) cultivars grown under field conditions in Southwestern Germany. Agronomy, 8(10), 197. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy8100197
  68. Rashid, N., Khan, S., Wahid, A., Basra, S. M. A., Alwahibi, M. S., & Jacobsen, S. E. (2021). Impact of natural and synthetic growth enhancers on the productivity and yield of quinoa (chenopodium quinoa ) cultivated under normal and late sown circumstances. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 00: 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12482
  69. Sadak, M. S., El-Bassiouny, H. M. S., & Dawood, M. G. (2019). Role of trehalose on antioxidant defense system and some osmolytes of quinoa plants under water deficit. Bulletin of the National Research Centre, 43(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42269-018-0039-9
  70. Saddiq, M. S., Wang, X., Iqbal, S., Hafeez, M. B., Khan, S., Raza, A., Iqbal, J., Maqbool, M. M., Fiaz, S., Qazi, M. A., & Bakhsh, A. (2021). Effect of water stress on grain yield and physiological characters of quinoa genotypes. Agronomy, 11(10), 1934(1-16). https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11101934
  71. Saedi, F., Sirousmehr, A., & Javadi, T. (2020). Effect of nano-potassium fertilizer on some morpho-physiological characters of peppermint (Mentha piperita) under drought stress. Journal of Plant Research (Iranian Journal of Biology), 33(1), 94-110. (in Prsian). https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.23832592.1399.33.1.16.6
  72. Salehi, M., & Dehghani, F. (2018). Guide to planting, holding and harvesting quinoa in saline conditions. Agricultural research, education and extension organization. 96 pp. (in Prsian).
  73. Samadzadeh, A. R., Zamani, G. R., & Fallahi, H. R. (2020). Possibility of quinoa production under South-Khorasan climatic condition as affected by planting densities and sowing dates. Applied Field Crops Research, 33(1), 82-104. (in Prsian). https://doi.org/10.22092/aj.2020.125793.1392
  74. Saraker, A. M., Rahman, M. S., & Paul, N. K. (1999). Effect of soil moisture on relative leaf water content, chlorophyll, proline and sugar accumulation in wheat. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 183, 225-229. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-037x.1999.00339.x
  75. Schonfeld, M. A., Johnson, R. C., Carver, B., & Morhinweg, D. W. (1988). Water relation in winter wheat as drought resistance indicator. Crop Science, 28, 526-531. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci1988.0011183X002800030021x
  76. Schutz, M., & Fangmeir, E. (2001). Growth and yield responses of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum cv. Minaret) to elevated CO2 and water limitation. Environmental Pollution, 114, 187-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0269-7491(00)00215-3
  77. Shaabani, A., Kamgar Haghighi, A. A., Sepaskhah, A. R., Emam, Y., & Honar, T. (2009). Effect of water stress on physiological parameters of oil seed rape (Brassica napus). Water and Soil Science (Journal of Science and Technologu of Agriculture and Natural Resours), 13(49), 31-42. (in Prsian).
  78. Solimaninya, Z., Mohtadi, A., & Movahhedi Dehnavi, M. (2021). Response of some physiological and morphological properties of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa ) by zinc application under drought stress.  Journal of Plant Process and Function, 10(41), 171-186. (in Persian with English abstract). http://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.23222727.1400.10.41.8.8
  79. Subbarao, G. V., Nam, N. H., Chauhan, Y. S., & Johansen, C. (2000). Osmotic adjustment, water relations and carbohydrate remobilization in pigeon pea under water deficits. Journal of Plant Physiology, 157, 651-659. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0176-1617(00)80008-5
  80. Sun, Y., Liu, F., Bendevis, M., Shabala, S., & Jacobsen, S. E. (2014). Sensitivity of two quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa ) varieties to progressive drought stress. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 200(1), 12-23. https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12042
  81. Taaime, N., El Mejahed, K., Moussafir, M., Bouabid, R., Oukarroum, A., Choukr-Allah, R., & El Gharous, M. (2022). Early sowing of quinoa cultivars, benefits from rainy season and enhances quinoa development, growth, and yield under arid condition in Morocco. Sustainability, 14, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14074010
  82. Tahmasebpour, B., Jahanbakhsh, S., Tarinejad, A. R., Mohammadi, H., & Ebadi, A. (2023). Canonical Correlation Analysis of Physiological and Grain Yield-related Traits in Bread Wheat Genotypes Grown in the Greenhouse under Normal and Flowering Drought Stress Conditions. Journal of Crop Breeding, 15(47), 123-133. (in Prsian). http://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.22286128.1402.15.47.12.2
  83. Taiz, L., Zeiger, E., Moller, I. M., & Murphy, A. (2015). Plant Physiology and Development. 6th Edition, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, CT. p: 761.
  84. Tarek, A. E., Sadak, M. S., & Dawood, M. G. (2017). Improving drought tolerance of quinoa plant by foliar treatment of trehalose. Agricultural Engineering International: CIGR Journal, Special issue, 245-254.
  85. Valentovic, P., Luxova, M., Kolarovi, L., & Gasparikora, L. (2006). Effect of osmotic stress on compatible solutes content, memberane stability and water relation in two maizes. Plant, Soil and Environmental, 52(4), 186-191.
  86. Van den Besselaar, E. J. M., Sanchez-Lorenzo, , Wild, M., Klein Tank, A. M. G., & de Laat, A. T. J. (2015). Relationship between sunshine duration and temperature trends across Europe since the second half of the twentieth century. Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres, 120, 10823-10836. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JD023640
  87. Vázquez-Luna, A., Veracruzana, U., Cortés, V. P., Carmona, F. F., Díaz-Sobac, R., & De Chile, P. U. C. (2019). Quinoa leaf as a nutritional International Journal of Agriculture and Natural Resource, 46(2), 137-143 https://doi.org/10.7764/rcia.v46i2.2098
  88. Venkateswarlu, B., & Ramesh, K. (1993). Cell membrane stability and biochemical response of cultured cells of groundenut under polyethylene glycol-induced water stress. Plant Science, 90, 179-185. https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-9452(93)90238-U
  89. Wang, M., Zheng, Q., Shen, Q., & Guo, S. (2013). The Critical Role of Potassium in Plant Stress Response. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 14(4), 7370-7390. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms14047370
  90. Wyse, A. T., & Netto, C. A. (2011). Behavioral and neurochemical effects of proline. Metabolic Brain Disease, 26(3), 159-172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11011-011-9246-x
  91. Yaqoob, H., Akram, N. A., Iftikhar, S., Ashraf, M., Khalid, N., Sadiq, M., Alyemeni, M. N., Wijaya, L., & Ahmad, P. (2019). Seed pretreatment and foliar application of proline regulate morphological, physio-biochemical processes and activity of antioxidant enzymes in plants of two cultivars of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). Plants, 8(12), 588: 1-17. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants8120588
  92. Zaheen, I., Iqbal, S., Naeem, H., Ateeq, M., Afzal, M., Shahzadi, N., & Khalid, B. (2023). Enhancing drought tolerance of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) through potassium and boron application. Asian Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 9(1), 21-33. https://doi.org/10.9734/AJSSPN/2023/v9i1169
  93. Zanganeh, M. M., Ghobadi, M. E., & KhorramiVafa, M. (2022). Effects of drought stress and nitrogen on yield and some physiological characteristics of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). Crop Physiology Journal, 14(53), 49-64. (in Persian).
  94. Zhu, J. K. (2002). Salt and drought stress signal transduction in plants, Annual Review of Plant Biology, 53, 247-273. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.53.091401.143329
Send comment about this article
CAPTCHA Image

Files

History

  • Receive Date: 12 November 2023
  • Revise Date: 29 January 2024
  • Accept Date: 03 February 2024
  • First Publish Date: 14 May 2024

Share

How to cite

Statistics