Investigation of Physiological and Yield Characteristics of Quinoa as Affected by Different Levels of Irrigation and Plant Density

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

1 PhD Student in Plant Physiology, Department of Plant Production and Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran

2 Department of Plant Production and Genetics, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran

3 Assistant Professor, National Salinity Research Center, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Yazd, Iran

4 Department of Water Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran

Abstract

Introduction
Quinoa is a dicotyledonous plant from the Amaranthaceae family, with favorable nutritional value and a high potential for growth and production in adverse environmental conditions. Despite being three carbon, it has high water consumption efficiency and as a new crop, due to its wide adaptation to different environment conditions such as salinity and drought, as well as being premature, it is suitable for planting in arid and desert areas and has many factors. Genetic and environmental factors such as genotype, density, arrangement and planting date, soil salinity, and drought stress affect yield. Among these, drought is one of the most important non-living stresses that cause great damage to crops and horticulture in the world every year. And especially Iran, which is considered an arid and semi-arid country. The effect of moisture stress on plants varies depending on which stage of plant growth occurs and plants can work through various mechanisms such as reducing growth parameters, closing pores, reducing photosynthesis, changing regulatory mechanisms of ion transport, and increasing activity. Antioxidant enzymes cope with drought stress to some extent, although such mechanisms are energy-intensive and cause a decline in performance.
Materials and Methods
In order to investigate the optimal density of quinoa at different levels of irrigation, a factorial experiment was conducted based on completely randomized design with three replications at the research farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Birjand University. The first factor was irrigation levels (based on 50, 75, and 100% water requirement) and the second factor was plant density at 5 levels (40, 60, 80, 100, and 120 plants m-2). Measurement traits included relative leaf water content, stomatal conductance, electrolyte leakage, number of branches, number of grains per branch, branch weight, 1000-grain weight, grain yield, water use efficiency, and grain protein.
Results and Discussion
The results showed that the yield components in response to low irrigation conditions were significantly reduced, so that the highest 1000-seed weight, number of branches, number of seeds per branch, branch weight and yield at the level of 100% water requirement were, respectively, 0.1 (g), 1368.4 (branching per square meter), 132.64 (grains per branching), 2377.8 (grams per square meter) and 3265.25 (kg ha-1) have been obtained. The maximum orifice conductivity measured at 35.66 (mol CO2 per square meter) was obtained at the beginning of flowering at 100% water requirement. Also, with decreasing irrigation level, physiological traits including relative leaf water content decreased significantly and traits such as electrolyte leakage and grain protein increased. The optimal density at the irrigation level of 100, 75, and 50% of water requirement were 113, 105, and 80 plants per square meter, respectively. The interaction of irrigation levels and density also showed that the highest yield was 100% of water requirement and density of 100 plants with 4226.52 kg ha-1. The results showed that at the irrigation levels of 100 and 75% of the water requirement, the highest yield was obtained at a density of 100 plants and with a decrease in density at these levels by 61.2 and 73.2%, respectively, was associated with a decrease in yield, but at the level of 50%. The highest yield was obtained at a density of 80 plants, which was accompanied by a decrease in yield to 40 plants with a yield of 73.5%. The results also show an increase in optimal density with increasing irrigation level, so that the most optimal density at the irrigation level of 100% of the water requirement is 113 plants per square meter and with increasing the stress to 75 and 50% of the water requirement, respectively, density Optimal yields of 105 and 80 plants per square meter have been achieved.
Conclusion
In general, the results show that lack of moisture has an adverse effect on quinoa yield such as 1000-seed weight, branch weight, number of seeds per branch, and number of branches in the main inflorescence and reduces the optimal plant density.

Keywords

Main Subjects


Open Access

©2022 The author(s). This article is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source.

  1. Abugoch, L., Castro, E., Tapia, C., Añón, M. C., Gajardo, P., & Villarroel, A. (2009). Stability of Quinoa Flour Proteins (Chenopodium quinoa) During Storage. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 44(10), 2013-2020. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2009.02023.x
  2. Ahmadi, A., & Ceiocemardeh, A. (2004). Effect of drought stress on soluble carbohydrate, chlorophyll and proline in four adopted wheat cultivars with various climate of Iran. Iranian Journal Agriculture Science, 35, 753-763. (in Persian with English abstract).
  3. Alvarez, J. A., & Ashraf, A. (2010). Role of vitamin D in insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity for glucose homeostasis. International Journal of Endocrinology, 61(4), 337-48. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/351385
  4. Aly, A. A., Al-Barakah, F. N., & El-Mahrouky, M. A. (2018). Salinity stress promote drought tolerance of Chenopodium Quinoa Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 49(11), 1331-1343. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2018.1457160
  5. AOAC. (1990). Official Methods of Analyses. Association of Official Analytical Chemists: Washington, DC.
  6. Aziz, A., Akram, N. A., & Ashraf, M. (2018). Influence of natural and synthetic vitamin C (ascorbic acid) on primary and secondary metabolites and associated metabolism in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) plants under water deficit regimes. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 123, 192-203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2017.12.004
  7. Badran, A. E., El-Sherebeny, E. A. M., & Salama, Y. A. (2015). Performance of some Alfalfa cultivars under salinity stress conditions. Journal Agriculture Science, 7(10), 281-290. https://doi.org/10.5539/jas.v7n10p281
  8. Bagheri, M. (2019). Quinoa Agriculture Manual. Ministry of Jihad for Agriculture, Seed and Plant Breeding Research Institute. 56 pages.
  9. Bhargava, A., Shukla S., & Ohri, D. (2006). Chenopodium quinoa—An Indian perspective. Industrial Crops and Products, 23, 73-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2005.04.002
  10. Bhargava, A., Shukla, S., & Ohri, D. (2007). Effect of sowing dates and row spacing’s on yield and quality components of quinoa (Chenapodium quinoa) leaves. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 77(11), 748-751. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11050405
  11. Bhargava, A., Shukla, S., Rajan S., & Ohri, D. (2007). Genetic diversity for morphological and quality traits in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) germplasm. Genetics Resources and Crop Evolution, 54, 167-173. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-005-3011-0
  12. Bieler, P., Fussell L. K., & Bidinger, F. R. (1993). Grain growth of Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br. under well watered and drought- stressed conditions. Field Crops Reserch, 31, 41-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-4290(93)90049-S
  13. Biglouei, M. H., Kafi Ghasemi, A., Javaher Dashti, M., & Esfahani, M. (2013). Effect of irrigation regimes on yield and quality of forage maize (KSC 704) in Rasht region in Iran. Iranian Journal of Crop Sciences, 15(3), 196-206.
  14. Bloch, D., Hoffman, C. M., & Marlandar, B. (2006). Impact of water supply on photosynthesis, water use and carbon isotope discrimination of sugar beet genotypes. European Journal of Agronomy, 24(3), 218-225.
  15. Blum, A., & Ebercon, A. (1981). Cell membrane stability as a measure of drought and heat tolerance in wheat 1. Crop Science, 21(1), 43-47. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci1981.0011183X002100010013x
  16. Board, J. E., & Harville, B. G. (1996). Growth dynamics during the vegetative period affects yield of narrow-row, late-planted soybean. Agronomy Journal, 88, 567-572. https:/doi.org/10.2134/agronj1996.00021962008800040012x
  17. Boojang, H., & Fukai, S. (1996). Effects of soil water deficit at different growth stages on rice growth and yield under upland conditions.1: Growth during drought. Field Crops Research, 48, 37-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-4290(96)00039-1
  18. Cabuslay, G. S., Ito, O., & Alejar, A. A. (2002). Physiological Evaluation of Responses of Rice (Oryza sativa) to Water Deficit. Plant Science, 163(4), 815-827. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-9452(02)00217-0
  19. Chamberlain, D. G., Thomas, P. C., Wilson, W., Newbold, C. J., & MacDonald, J. C. (1985). The effects of carbohydrate supplements on ruminal concentrations of ammonia in animals given diets of grass silage. The Journal of Agricultural Science, 104(2), 331-340. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859600044002
  20. Dagdelen, N., Yilmaz, E., Sezgin, F. & Gurbuz, T. (2006). Water-yield relation and water use efficiency of cotton (Gossypicum hirisutum) and second crop corn (Zea mays L.) in western Turkey. Agriculture. Water Management, 82(1), 63-85.
  21. El-Kheir, M. S. A., Kandil, S. A., & Mekki, B. B. (1994). Physiological response of two soybean cultivars grown under stress conditions as affected by CCC treatment. Egypt. Journal of Physiology Sciences, 18, 179-200. https://doi.org/10.3923/ajps.2009.536.543
  22. English, M. (1990). Deficit irrigation. I. Analytical framework Journal of Irrigation and Drainage. E-ASCE, 116, 399-412. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9437(1990)116:3(399)
  23. English, M. J., Musick, J. T., & Murty, V. V. (1990). Deficit Irrigation. In:J. Hoffman, T.A. Towell and K.H. Solomon (Eds.) Management of Farm Irrigation Systems. St. Joseph, Michigan, United States of America, ASAE.
  24. Eshghizadeh, H. R., Zahedi, M., Ashrafi, A., & Khajehpour, M. R. (2010). The effect of irrigation regime and plant density on growth and development, leaf moisture content and yield of sweet corn (K.S.C.404). Journal of Applied Crop Research, 88, 45-53. (in Persian with English abstract).
  25. Eyvazi, A. R., Mohammadi, S. A., Abdollahi, Sh., Hosseini Salkadeh, S. A., & Majidi Heravan, E. (2005). Effect of Soil Salinity on Morpho-Physiological Traits of Ten Spring Wheat (Triticum aestivum) Genotypes. Journal of Agricultural Knowledge, 16(2), 171-184. (in Persian with English abstract)
  26. FAO. (2011). Quinoa; An Ancient Crop to Contribute to World Food Security. Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean. 63p.
  27. FAOSTAT. (2020). https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/
  28. Fuentes, F., & Bhargava, A. (2011). Morphological analysis of quinoa germplasm grown under lowland desert conditions. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 197, 124-134. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-037X.2010.00445.x
  29. Garcia, M., Raes, D., & Jacobsen, S. E. (2003). Evapotranspiration analysis and irrigation requirements of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) in the Bolivian highlands. Agriculture Water Management, 60, 119-134. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3774(02)00162-2
  30. Geerts, S., Raes, D., Garcia, M., Del Castillo, C., & Buytaert, W. (2006). Agro-climatic suitability mapping for crop production in the Bolivian Altiplano: A case study for quinoa. Agriculture Forest Meteorology, 139, 399-412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2006.08.018
  31. Ghasemi Siani, E., Fallah, S., & Tadayyon, A. (2011). Study on Yield and Seed Quality of Plantago ovata, Under Different Nitrogen Treatments and Deficit Irrigation. Iranian Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research, 27(3), 517-528. (in Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22092/ijmapr.2011.6392
  32. Ghooshchi, F., Shirani Rad, A. H., Noormohammadi, Gh., & Hadi, H. (2010). Changes in Yield and Seed Yield Components of Rapeseed Cultivars in Optimum and Limited Irrigation Conditions. Improvement Research (Environmental Stresses in Plant Sciences), 2(1), 13-28. (in Persian).
  33. Goldhamer, D. A., Salinas, M., Crisosto, C., Day, K. R., Soler, M., & Moriana, A. (2002). Effects of regulated deficit irrigation and partial rootzone drying on late harvest peach tree performance. Acta Horticulturae, 592, 343-350. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2002.592.48
  34. Hashemi Dezfouli, A., Koocheki, A., & Banayan, M. (1995). Maximizing Crop Yields. Jahad Daneshgahi of Mashhad Press, Mashhad, Iran (in Persian).
  35. Hashemi Nia, S. M. (2004). Water Management in Agriculture. First Edition. Ferdowsi University of Mashhad Press. Mashhad, Iran. 536 Page. (in Persian).
  36. Hassanpour, H., & Niknam, V. (2014). Effect of water deficit stress on growth and antioxidant enzyme activity of Mentha pulegium at flowering stage. Journal of Plant Process and Function, 3(8), 25-34. (in Persian with English abstract).
  37. Jackson, M. B. (1993). Are plant hormones involved in root-to-shoot communication? Advances in Botanical Research, 19, 103-187.
  38. Jacobsen, S. E., Liu, F., & Jensen, R. (2009). Does root-sourced ABA play a role for regulation of stomata under drought in quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Scientia Horticulturae, 122(2), 281-287.
  39. Jakobsen, A. L. (2003). Effects of think aloud on translation speed, revision, and segmentation. Benjamins Translation Library, 45, 69-96. https://doi.org/10.1075/btl.45.08jak
  40. Jamali, S., Goldani, M., & Zaenodin, S. M. (2018). Investigation of the effect of periodic water stress on yield, yield components and water use efficiency of quinoa. Iranian Journal of Irrigation and Drainage, 13, 1687-1697.
  41. Jayme-Oliveira, A., Ribeiro Júnior, W. Q., Ramos, M. L. G., Ziviani, A. C., & Jakelaitis, A. (2017). Amaranth, quinoa, and millet growth and development under different water regimes in the Brazilian Cerrado. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, 52(8), 561-571. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0100-204x2017000800001
  42. Kafi, A. K. M., Ahmadalinezhad, A., Wang, J., Thomas, D. F., & Chen, A. (2010). Direct growth of nanoporous Au and its application in electrochemical biosensing. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 25(11), 2458-2463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2010.04.006
  43. Kafi, R., Kwak, H. S. R., Schumacher, W. E., Cho, S., Hanft, V. N., Hamilton, T. A., & Kang, S. (2007). Improvement of naturally aged skin with vitamin A (retinol). Archives of Dermatology, 143(5), 606-612. https://doi.org/10.1001/archderm.143.5.606
  44. Khajepour, F., & Hosseini, S. A. (2012). Citric acid improves growth performance and phosphorus digestibility in Beluga (Huso huso) fed diets where soybean meal partly replaced fish meal. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 171(1), 68-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2011.10.001
  45. Khazaei, H. (2001). Improvement of sugarbeet (Beta Vulgaris) seed germination with water treatement.
  46. Khazaei, H. (2002). The effect of drought stress on yield and physiological characteristics of resistant and susceptible wheat cultivars and the introduction of the most appropriate drought resistance indices. PhD Thesis in Crop Physiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. https://doi.org/10.22077/escs.2017.360.1068
  47. Khorshidi, M., Rahimzadeh, B., Mirhadi, M., & Normohamadi, Gh. (2002). Investigation of the effects of drought stress on potato growth stages. Iranian Journal of Crop Sciences, 4(1), 59-48.
  48. Koutroubas, S. D., Papakosta, D. K., & Doitsinis, A. (2000). Water requirements for castor oil crop (Ricinnus communis) In a mediterranean climate. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 14, 33-41. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-037x.2000.00357.x
  49. Lavini, A., Pulvento, C., d'Andria, R., Riccardi, M., Choukr, R., Allah, O. Belhabib. (2014). Quinoa's potential in the Mediterranean region. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 200, 344-360. https://doi.org/10.1111/jac.12069
  50. Lugojan, C., & Ciulca, S. (2011). Evaluation of relative water content in winter wheat. Journal of Horticulture, Forestry and Biotechnology, 15(2), 173-177.
  51. Matinfar, M., Matinfar, M., Mahjoor, M., Shiranirad, A. H., & Mohammadi, R. (2012). Effect of plant density on yield and yield components of rapeseed varieties (Brassica napus) in Qazvin. Ecophysiology of Farm Crops, 4(24), 405-414. (in Persian with English abstract).
  52. Morgan, J. M. (1977). Changes in diffusive conductance and water potential of wheat plants before and after anthesis. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 4, 75-86.
  53. Nazari Nasi, H., Jabbari, F., Azimi, M. R., & Nowruzian, M. (2012). Evaluation of the effect of drought stress on membrane stability, photosynthesis rate, relative water content and grain yield of four bean cultivars. Iranian Journal of Crop Science, 43(3), 499-491. https://doi.org/10.22059/ijfcs.2012.29045
  54. Oya, T., Nepomuceno, A. L., Neumaier, N., Boucas Farias, J. R., Tobita, S., & Ito, O. (2004). Drought tolerance characteristics of Brazilian soybean cultivars evaluation and characterization of drought tolerance of various Brazilian soybean cultivars in the field. Plant Production Science, 7(2), 129-137. https://doi.org/10.1626/pps.7.129
  55. Prasad, T., & Yadav, D. S. (1990). Effect of irrigation and plant density on yield attributes and yield of green gram and black gram. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 35, 99-151.
  56. Premachandra, G. S., Saneoka, H., Fujita, K., & Ogata, S. (1992). Leaf water relations, osmotic adjustment, cell membrane stability, epicuticle wax load and growth as affected by increasing deficits in Sorghum. Journal of Experimental Botany, 43, 156-176.
  57. Rabbani, J., & Emam, Y. (2011). Response of grain yield of corn hybrids to drought stress at different stages of growth. Journal of Production and Processing of Crop and Horticultural Products, 1(2), 78-65. https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.22518517.1390.1.2.5.0
  58. Rabbani, J., & Emam, Y. (2011). Yield Response of Maize Hybrids to Drought Stress at Different Growth Stages. Journal of Crop Production and Processing, 1(2), 65-78. (in Persian with English abstract).
  59. Rao, K. G. (1987). Water use and irrigation response to defoliated corn with various population. Available from University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106, Order No. 8706243. Ph.D. Dissertation. 142p, 36 fig, 43 tab, 73 ref, append.
  60. Razzaghi, F., Plauborg, F., Jacobsen, S., Jensen, C. R., & Andersen, M. N. (2012). Effect of nitrogen and water availability of three soil types on yield, radiation use efficiency and evapotranspiration in field-grown quinoa. Agricultural Water Management, 109, 20-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2012.02.002
  61. Risi, J., & Galwey, N. W. (1991). Effects of sowing date and sowing rate on plant development and grain yield of quinoa (Chenopodiumquinoa) in a temperate environment. Journal of Agricultural Science, 117, 325-332. https://doi.org/10.17557/tjfc.485617
  62. Rushdie, M., Heidari Sharifabad, H., Karimi., Noor Mohammadi, Q., & Dervish, F. (2006). Effects of dehydration stress on yield and grain yield components of sunflower cultivars. Special Issue of Agricultural Sciences Research, 12(1), 109-122. https://doi.org/10.22055/ppd.2022.32122.1862
  63. Sairam, R. K., & Srivastava, G. C. (2001). Water stress tolerance of wheat (Triticum aestivum): variations in hydrogen peroxide accumulation and antioxidant activity in tolerant and susceptible genotypes. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 186(1), 63-70. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-037x.2001.00461.x
  64. Salehi, M., & Dehghani, F. (2019). Guide to planting, holding and harvesting quinoa in saline conditions. Ministry of Jihad Agriculture, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization, Deputy for Extension. 96 pages. https://doi.org/10.22077/escs.2021.3287.1837
  65. Samadzadeh, A. R., Zamani, Gh., & Fallahi, H. R. (2019). Possibility of quinoa production under South-Khorasan climatic condition as affected by planting densities and sowing dates. Journal of Agricultural Applied Research, 33(1), 126.104-82. https://doi.org/10.22092/aj.2020.125793.1392
  66. Sandha, T. S., Bhllav, H., Chema, S., & Gill, A. (1977). Variability and interrelationship among grain protein yield and yield components in mungbeen. Indian Journal Agriculture Reserch, 30, 871-882.
  67. Sarmadnia, Gh. H., & Koocheki, E. (1991). Crop Physiology. Jehade-Daneshgahi of Mashhad Publication. (in Persian).
  68. Sarmadnia, Gh. H., & Kouchaki, A. (1991). Crop Physiology, Mashhad University Jihad Publications. 467 p. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci1991.0011183X003100020034x
  69. Sharma, B., Molden, D., & Cook, S. (2015). Water use efficiency in agriculture: Measurement, current situation and trends. PP 39-64 in P. Drechsel, P. Heffer, H. Magen, R. Mikkelsen and D. Wichelns eds. Managing Water and Fertilizer for Sustainable Agricultural Intensification. Paris, France: International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA), Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Georgia, USA: International Plant Nutrition Institute (IPNI), Horgen, Switzerland: International Potash Institute (IPI). https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.208411
  70. Shibairo, S. I., Upadhyaya, M. K., & Toivonen, P. M. A. 1998. Influence of prearrest water stress on postharvest moisture loss of carrot (Daucus carota). Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 73, 347-352. https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.1998.11510984
  71. Soleimanipour, Sh., Shirani Rad, A. H., Madani, H., Rezaie Zad, A., & Fareghi, Sh., (2009). Study the time effect of irrigation outage on agronomic traits of cultivars of winter rapeseed. New Findings in Agricultre, 3(3), 263-274. (in Persian with English abstract).
  72. Soleimanpour, S., Shiranirad, A. H., Madani, H., Rezaeizad, A., & Fareghi, S. (2009). Investigation the Effect of Water Deficit on Agronomical Characteristics and Growth Indices of Winter Rapeseed Cultivars. New Finding in Agriculture, 3(3), 263-274. (in Persian with English abstract).
  73. Spehar, C. R., & Rocha, J. E. S. (2009). Effect of sowing density on plant growth and development of quinoa, genotype 4.5, in the Brazilian savannah highlands. Bioscience Journal, 25, 53-58. https://doi.org/10.22092/sppi.2021.123894
  74. Wilson, H. D., & Heiser, C. B. (1979). The origin and evolutionary relationships of‘Huauzontle, (Chenopodium nuttalliae Safford), domesticated chenopod of Mexico. American Journal of Botany, 66(2), 198-206. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1979.tb06215.x
  75. Winter, S. R., Musick, J. T., & Porter, K. B. (1988). Evaluation of Screening Techniques for Breeding Drought – Resistance Winter Wheat. Crop Science, 28, 512-516. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci1988.0011183X002800030018x
  76. Yadav, R., Gayadin, S., & Jaiswal, A. K. (2001). Morpho-physiological changes and variable yield of wheat genotypes under moisture stress conditions. Indian Journal of Plant Physiology, 6, 390-394.
  77. Yerardi, R. S. (2007). Biobehavioral nicotine dependence in persons with schizophrenia (Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University).
  78. Zhang, H., & Oweis, T. (1999). Water-yield relations and optimal irrigation scheduling of wheat in the Mediterranean region. Agriculture Water Manage, 38, 195-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3774(98)00069-9
CAPTCHA Image